History, Names, and Role of Dogs in Japanese Culture

History, Names, and Role of Dogs in Japanese Culture The Japanese word for hound is inu. You can compose inu in either hiragana or kanji, however since the kanji character for hound is very basic, have a go at figuring out how to compose it in kanji. Common Japanese canines incorporate Akita, Tosa, and Shiba breeds. The onomatopoeic expression for a mutts bark is wan-wan. In Japan, the canine is accepted to have been trained as ahead of schedule as the Jomon time frame (10,000 B.C.). White mutts are believed to be particularly propitious and frequently show up in people stories, (for example, Hanasaka jiisan). In the Edo time frame, Tokugawa Tsuneyoshi, the fifth shogun and a passionate Buddhist, requested the assurance all things considered, particularly hounds. His guidelines concerning hounds were outrageous to such an extent that he was derided as the Inu Shogun. A later story is the story of Hachiko, the chuuken or loyal pooch from the 1920s. Hachiko met his lord at Shibuya station toward the finish of each workday. Much after his lord kicked the bucket one day at work, Hachiko kept on sitting tight at the station for a long time. He turned into a famous image of dedication. After his demise, Hachikos body was placed in an exhibition hall, and there is a bronze sculpture of him before Shibuya station. Basic expressions alluding to inu are as basic in Japan as they are in the West. Inujini, to kick the bucket like pooch, is to pass on uselessly. To consider somebody a pooch is to blame the person in question for being a government agent or trick. Inu mo arukeba bou ni ataru or when the canine strolls, it stumbles into a stick is a typical saying, implying that when you stroll outside, you might meet with a surprising fortune. Kobanashi: Ji no Yomenu Inu Here is a kobanashi (clever story) named Ji no Yomenu Inu, or The Dog That Can’t Read.† Inu no daikiraina otoko ga, tomodachi ni kikimashita.†Naa, inu ga itemo heiki de tooreru houhou wa nai darou ka.†Ã¢â‚¬ Soitsu wa, kantanna koto sa.Te no hira ni tora to iu ji o kaite oite, inu ga itara soitsu o miseru n da.Suruto inu wa okkanagatte nigeru kara.†Ã¢â‚¬ Fumu fumu. Soitsu wa, yoi koto o kiita.†Otoko wa sassoku, te no hira ni tora to iu ji o kaite dekakemashita.Shibaraku iku to, mukou kara ookina inu ga yatte kimasu.Yoshi, sassoku tameshite yarou.Otoko wa te no hira o, inu no mae ni tsukidashimashita.Suruto inu wa isshun bikkuri shita monono, ookina kuchi o akete sono te o gaburi to kandan desu. Tsugi no howdy, te o kamareta otoko ga tomodachi ni monku o iimashita.†Yai, oame no iu youni, te ni tora to iu ji o kaite inu ni meseta ga, hore kono youni, kuitsukarete shimatta wa.†Suruto tomodachi wa, kou iimashita.†Yare yare, sore wa fuun na koto da. Osoraku sono inu wa, ji no yomenu inu darou.† Language structure In the above story, â€Å"fumu fumu,† â€Å"yoshi,† and â€Å"yare yare† are Japanese contributions. â€Å"Fumu fumu† can be deciphered as, â€Å"Hmm,† or, â€Å"I see.† â€Å"Yare yare,† portrays a moan of alleviation. Here are a few models. Yoshi, sore ni kimeta: OK, I am sold on that idea!Yoshi, hikiukeyou: All right, I will take it on.Yare yare, yatto tsuita: Well, here we are at last.Yare yare, kore de tasukatta: Hallelujah! We are sheltered finally.

Consommation (in French) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Consommation (in French) - Essay Example Mais cette expã ©rience moderne est trã ¨s diffã ©rente de celle du passã ©, quand faire les achats à ©tait un processus in addition to long, qui demandait in addition to d’ã ©nergie. Aujourd’hui, je suis sã »r que les produits procurã ©s dans le supermarchã © sont de bonne qualitã ©, puisqu’ils sont bien rã ©glementã ©s et bien gã ©rã ©. Le stock contient une gamme variã ©e de produits, mã ªme des apparats à ©lectriques, qui sont moins cher que les autres produits dans les petits magasins. Je pense qu’il vaut mieux acheter des produits qui sont situã ©s sous le mã ªme toit ou je suis in addition to attentif à ce que j’achã ¨te. Faire des courses est, donc, une expã ©rience rafraã ®chissante et simple. Mais quand j’ã ©tais enfant, jhabitais dans une modest ville en Irlande dans les annã ©es quatre vingt, ou il ny avait pas de grandes chaã ®nes de supermarchã ©s. Mama famille et moi faisaient les achats le samedi matin dans un marchã © ou nous achetions nos natural products et nos lã ©gumes; il prenait au moins quatre heures pour finir les courses. On trouvait du torment à la boulangerie et de la viande à la boucherie, ou les produits à ©taient toujours frais et personne n’ã ©tait mã ©fiant de leur bonne qualitã ©. En additionally, mama mã ¨re parlait avec les autres customers, donc on sentait une strength sensation dappartenir à la communautã © et les petites entreprises et commerã §ants à ©taient une partie de notre culture et notre identitã ©. J’ai alors pris cette convention avec moi et aujourd’hui, je vais aussi aux petits commerã §ants pour certains ingrã ©dients, comme torment, lait, fromage ou chocolat parce que mama famille en mange beaucoup. Maintenant, les petites entreprises ont disparu et ont à ©tã © remplacã ©es standard les grandes chaã ®nes de supermarchã ©s. Toutefois, je ne suis pas triste; on the contrary, jaime la convenance moderne. Je crois que les communautã ©s ont besoin dun focus business proche pour acheter les choses nã ©cessaires sans excellent exertion. Aussi, nous habitons dans une sociã ©tã © multiculturelle et cest significant

More For Deferred Students

More For Deferred Students So, if youve been deferred, you may be asking, What now? Is it all over for me? At MIT, a deferral isnt just a polite rejection. Your application will once again be considered by the committee during regular action. You are at no advantage or disadvantage versus the regular action applications. We will admit the best applications we can during regular action, regardless of when the application was submitted. (A little historical data: last year, we admitted 295 deferred students during regular action, 267 the year before, and 326 the year before that) What should I do now? I recommend spending the next few weeks before January 1 working on regular action applications for other schools. You should still put the same energy and thought you put into your MIT application into your other applications. [But MIT is my dream school, I cant imagine being happy anywhere else!] [This doesnt apply to everyone, but occasionally some students become so focused on MIT they cant see all the other amazing schools that are out there. For those students who are really attracted to MITs campus culture, Ive found these students often are also happy at many other schools, including Caltech (January 2 deadline), Carnegie Mellon (Jan. 1), Cooper Union (varies), Harvey Mudd (Jan. 15), Olin College (Jan. 1), RPI (Jan. 15), and the University of Chicago (Jan. 2). For those students who particularly like the Boston area, you can also look at Boston College (Jan. 1), Boston University (Jan. 1), Brandeis University (Jan. 15), Harvard University (Jan. 1), Northeastern University (Jan. 15), Tufts University (Jan. 1), and Wellesley College (Jan. 15), among others.] Should I send in extra materials? The only thing we ask that you send in is the midyear grade report. You can download one off of the MyMIT website if you need one. Your semester grades are very important so keep working hard. Wed like this report as soon as possible after your grades are available; by the beginning of February would be great, but definitely by the end of February. You may also want to keep us up-to-date with any news in your life. This is not required nor is it expected, but if anything exciting happens definitely let us know. Its best if you send any such letter by the end of January, but you may keep us in the loop through the time we mail regular action decisions in mid-March. Should I send in a whole new version of my application, or all new essays? No. You do not need to improve your application, or redo/edit/modify part or all of your application. You were deferred because your application was already strong enough to make you a contender in the Regular Action round. Let your application stand. What about extra essays, recommendations, etc? You may send along anything (such as) that you feel would be helpful to the committee. We do not expect or require any of these things. Simply sending in additional materials does not by itself increase your chances of admission. What other advice do you have? You should check in with your guidance/college counselor. Often, their years of experience provide wisdom and insight into your particular situation. Theyre more than welcome to give our office a call if our decision isnt consistent with their experience, or just to talk about the process. Can I call admissions to find out The Reason why I was deferred? If you call in, we will not be able to tell you the reason why you were deferred, or what needs to be improved, simply because things are much more complex than just one reason why you were deferred. Usually, when I take a call from a deferred applicant, theres nothing that I see to be lacking or needing improvement most of our deferred students submitted very strong applications, the kinds of applications any school (including MIT) would love to have in their student body. Honestly. Im glad to see from the comments that most of you, while understandably disappointed, are remaining upbeat, continuing to work on other applications, and knowing that one year from now, youll be getting ready to take a holiday break from some really amazing school (maybe MIT) to spend some quality time with loved ones. Being an optimist, I know that things always turn out well in the end.

Quotes From The Handmaids Tale

The Handmaids Tale is a best-selling feminist novel by Margaret Atwood set in a dystopian future. In it, war and pollution have made pregnancy and childbirth increasingly difficult, and women are enslaved as prostitutes  or virginal concubines (handmaiden) in an effort to repopulate and control the population. Atwoods beautiful, haunting prose in The Handmaids Tale is told from the first-person perspective of a woman called Offred (or Of Fred, her master). The story follows Offred through her third service as a handmaiden and also offers flashbacks to her life before the Revolution that led to this new American society founded on religious fanaticism. Read on to discover quotes from The Handmaids Tale and learn more about the not-too-distant-or-improbable future outlined in Margaret Atwoods famed novel. Quotes About Hope in Dystopia Offred carries with her a certain quiet optimism that her daughter—who was taken from her when she tried to flee to Canada with her husband at the start of the revolution—is still alive, though this hope is diminished by the harsh conditions she lives under as a handmaiden, as described in Chapter Five: There is more than one kind of freedom...Freedom to and freedom from. In the days of anarchy, it was freedom to. Now you are being given freedom from. Dont underrate it. In Chapter Five, Offred also speaks of her daughter, saying, She is a flag on a hilltop, showing what can still be done: we too can be saved. Here, Offred reveals that her hope hinges upon the fact that her daughter has still not turned up on the wall where the ruling class hangs sinners near where Offred is held. Still, this optimism and hope is nothing in the face of the reality Offred finds herself in, and she admits in Chapter Seven that shes pretending the reader can hear her, But its no good because I know you cant. The Other Handmaidens Offred seems to have contempt for her fellow handmaidens, perhaps for their complacency or their simplistic view of the world: They are very interested in how other households are run; such bits of petty gossip give them an opportunity for pride or discontent. Still, Offred shares similarities with all other handmaidens in that they were the people who were not in the papers, the ones who lived in the blank white spaces at the edge of print, which Offred said gave them more freedom. All of them also undergo an indoctrination, a brainwashing ritual at the Academy where they train to be handmaidens. In Chapter 13, Offred describes a scene where the handmaidens are all seated in a circle around a woman confessing to being raped—Her fault, her fault, her fault, we chant in unison, Atwood writes. The woman training them, Aunt Lydia, also encourages all the handmaidens that though the new concepts introduced in their schooling may seem strange at first, they will eventually become mundane, but if not, the handmaidens would be punished for stepping out of line. One such instance is described in Chapter Eight: She doesnt make speeches anymore. She has become speechless. She stays in her home, but it doesnt seem to agree with her. How furious she must be now that she has been taken at her word.   Offred feels a pressure to fulfill these new standards despite herself, and in Chapter 13 says of her shortcomings, I have failed once again to fulfill the expectations of others, which have become my own. In Chapter 30, Offred says of her oppressors, That was one of the things they do. They force you to kill, within yourself. Ultimately in Chapter 32, she realizes an important lesson when her master, Fred, tells her,  Better never means better for everyone...It always means worse for some.   Other Quotes From The Handmaids Tale I dont want to look at something that determines me so completely. (Chapter 12) Give me children, or else I die. Am I in Gods stead, who hath withheld from thee the fruit of the womb? Behold my maid Bilhah. She shall bear fruit upon my knees, that I may also have children by her. (Chapter 15) Moira had power now, shed been set loose, shed set herself loose. She was now a loose woman. (Chapter 22) Maybe none of this is about control. Maybe it isnt really about who can own whom, who can do what to whom and get away with it, even as far as death. Maybe it isnt about who can sit and who has to kneel or stand or lie down, legs spread open. Maybe its about who can do what to whom and be forgiven for it. Never tell me it amounts to the same thing. (Chapter 23) There is something subversive about this garden of Serenas, a sense of buried things bursting upwards, wordlessly, into the light, as if to say: Whatever is silenced will clamor to be heard, though silently. (Chapter 25) Agreed to it right away, really she didnt care, anything with two legs and a good you-know-what was fine with her. They arent squeamish, they dont have the same feelings we do. (Chapter 33) And Adam was not deceived, but the women being deceived was in the transgression. Notwithstanding she shall be saved by childbearing. (Chapter 34) There is something reassuring about the toilets. Bodily functions at least remain democratic. Everybody shits, as Moira would say. (Chapter 39) The trouble is I cant be, with him, any different than I usually am with him. Usually, I am inert. Surely there must be something for us, other than this futility and bathos. (Chapter 39) It makes me feel more in control as if there is a choice, a decision that could be made one way or the other. (Chapter 41) The crimes of others are a secret language among us. Through them, we show ourselves what we might be capable of, after all. This is not a popular announcement. (Chapter 42) Dear God, I think, I will do anything you like. Now that youve let me off, Ill obliterate myself, if that is what you really want; Ill empty myself, truly, become a chalice. Ill give up Nick, Ill forget about the others, Ill stop complaining. Ill accept my lot. Ill sacrifice. Ill repent. Ill abdicate. Ill renounce. (Chapter 45) Dont let the bastards grind you down. I repeat this to myself but it conveys nothing. You might as well say, Dont let there be air; or Dont be. I suppose you could say that. (Chapter 46)

Homelessness The Center Of Homelessness - 944 Words

Homelessness has become a problem in Los Angeles that cannot be ignored. According to the Los Angeles Times there has been a 12 percent increase in homelessness this year with an 85 percent increase in homeless people living in tents, makeshift encampments and vehicles to 9,535. Skid Row is the center of homelessness in Los Angeles, it comprises of 50 blocks from 3rd to 7th and Main to Alameda Street. To capture the essence of Skid Row I used the 360fly camera with a GoPro 3-way mount. The camera is one of the first affordable spherical cameras on the market and is durable like an action (i.e. GoPro) camera. It retails for $399.99 and is only available at Best Buy; the mount retails for $69.99 and can be purchased anywhere GoPro accessories are sold. The camera is a small black ball smaller than a baseball and easy to carry because of its size and durability. You have to connect the camera to your phone through direct Wi-Fi the camera emits using the 360fly app. There you can see what you are filming and can edit your footage too. The app also lets you post two minutes worth of footage to YouTube or send a link to friend who can go to the website and watch it there. It also has a Google Cardboard button so you can watch your footage using Virtual Reality glasses. The only problem with the camera is it doesn’t shoot full HD or 4K like regular cameras but being that ità ¢â‚¬â„¢s the first generation of the camera, it will revolutionize the how documentaries and home videos areShow MoreRelatedHomelessness And The National Law Center On Homelessness834 Words   |  4 PagesHomelessness is a choice that people choose to take, because they feel and think they are less fortunate in life cost to much. That living on the streets may be easy, then having so many responsibility to keep up with. Being homeless, a homeless would carrying everything they need for survival, traveling lightly with personal things and eat at places that feed them for free. This leaves the responsibilities of taking care of bills, car insurance or other things out of picture. There are many reasonsRead MoreThe National Law Center On Homelessness Poverty Essay1666 Words   |  7 PagesThe National Law Center on Homelessness Poverty currently estimates that each year at least 2.5 to 3.5 million Americans sleep in shelters, transitional housing, and public places not meant for hu man habitation. At least an additional 7.4 million have lost their own homes and are doubled-up with others due to economic necessity. According to Point-in-Time Count, San Diego had 8,692 homeless people. Almost 3,800 of them were sleeping in emergency shelters or transitional housing. The Count showedRead MoreHomelessness And Poverty And Homelessness1699 Words   |  7 Pages these circumstances are an ordinary part of life. (National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty 7) While a portion of today’s society turns a blind eye to the subject of the criminalization of homelessness, an even larger quantity of people are not aware of the situation that is happening in every major city of America. For those living an affluent lifestyle, it can be difficult to discuss the amount of poverty and homelessness that is constantly occurring. The definition and meaning behind theRead MoreWhat Can Be Done to Help the Homeless? Essay583 Words   |  3 Pagesempty homes they could be occupying! But alas, they sleep on the streets, beg for money, and scavenge for food in dumpsters, hoping for a way to pull through for the night. Homelessness is important because there are 3.5 million homeless people on the streets, maybe even more (National Student Campaign Against Hunger and Homelessness). They are starving on the streets, desperate for a job and a warm place to sleep. Of those 3.5 million homeless people, 1.7 million are teenagers. 75% of all homeless teensRead MoreA Vulnerable Population: The Homeless in America919 Words   |  4 PagesHomeless in America Introduction Homelessness in America should be a growing concern. When discussing the United States current economic crisis comparisons with the Great Depression are becoming more and more common. Tent cities or makeshift shelters in specified areas or just beyond city limits are becoming familiar sites across the country. Each of these cities contains dozens if not hundreds of families struggling to just survive (Maide, 2010). Homelessness can be defined as the lack of aRead More How Many People are Homeless? Essay1591 Words   |  7 Pagesis misleading. In most cases, homelessness is a temporary circumstance -- not a permanent condition. A more appropriate measure of the magnitude of homelessness is therefore how many people experience homelessness, not how many people are homeless. 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Introduction to Psychology Free Essays

UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY PRESENTED BY: NJUE ANGELINE WANJA X74/53648/2012 PRESENTED TO: PROFESSOR GATUMU 1. MAKE A DISTINCTION BETWEEN NATURE AND NURTURE Nature is the inherent character or basic constitution of a person or thing while nurture is the sum of the environmental factors influencing the behavior and traits expressed by an organism. 2. We will write a custom essay sample on Introduction to Psychology or any similar topic only for you Order Now IDENTIFY THE RECOGNISED EFFECTS OF NATURE AND NURTURE ON BEHAVIOUR AND DISCUSS THE MAJOR ISSUE CONCERNING THIS INFLUENCE. DO BEHAVIOURS THAT PROMOTED SURVIVAL IN EARLY EVOLUTION OF HUMANBEINGS STILL INFLUENCE THE WAY PEOPLE BEHAVE TODAY? DISCUSS Nature plays a role in determining personality. These personality traits help determine the paths people take in their environment (nurture), which in turn effects their specific behaviours. Behaviours that promoted survival in early evolution still influence the way people behave today. Evolutionary psychologists believe that evolutionary processes designed our mind for life in an environment. They say that the human brain consists of specialized neural circuits designed by evolution to unconsciously solve problems that our ancestors faced during our evolutionary history. 3EXPLAIN HOW TWINS DEVELOP AND WHY TWIN STUDIES ARE IMPORTANT TO PSYCHOLOGISTS. CAN BEHAVIOUR TRAITS SUCH AS SHYNESS AND AGGRESSIVENESS BE INHERITED? DISCUSS The scientific study of twins began in the 1870’s. Twins provide a natural control for experiments because respect for each twin’s feelings, privacy and personhood is easy for even the best intentioned scientist to compromise. Behaviour traits such as shyness and aggressiveness cannot be inherited. This is because they are not genetical 4. DEFINE THE TERM LEARNING AND EXPLAIN HOW PSYCHOLOGISTS DETERMINE WHEN LEARNING HAS OCCURRED. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge as a result of experience or practice. It comes about due to the combination of these factors: change in behavior, change in knowledge, results of experience and permanency. Learning is said to have occurred by observation of the behavior before and after learning. Once something is learned, an organism can exhibit a behavior that indicates learning has occurred. 5. DEFINE CONDITIONING AND EXPLAIN HOW CLASSICALLY CONDITIONED RESPONSES ARE LIKE AND UNLIKE REFLEXES (HINT: AUTOMATIC, LEARNED AND NOT LEARNED) Conditioning is the acquisition of behavior in the presence of a well defined stimulus. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a reflexive response that was originally evoked by a different stimulus. 6 . DESCRIBE CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND DEFINE THE VARIOUS TYPES OF STIMULI AND RESPONSES INVOLVED. Classical conditioning is the acquisition of behavior in the presence of well defined stimuli. a) Unconditioned stimulus – a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without any prior conditioning example food b) Unconditioned response – an unlearned reaction/response to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without prior conditioning example salivating c) Conditioned stimulus – an originally neutral stimulus that now elicits a conditioned response example ringing the bell d) Conditioned response – behavior that the animal has learnt in response to conditioned stimulus. . DESCRIBE HOW EXTINCTION AND SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY AFFECT CLASSICALY CONDITIONED RESPONSES. Extinction is the result of eliminating the unconditioned stimulus and repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus alone. Eventually the conditioned stimulus will no longer elicit the conditioned response. If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are again paired after the cond itioned response has been extinguished, the conditioned response returns to its original strength very quickly. An extinguished conditioned response will temporarily reappear if after some time delay, the conditioned stimulus occurs without the unconditioned, this is called spontaneous recovery. 8. DESCRIBE OPERANT CONDITIONING AND IDENTIFY TWO PSYCHOLOGISTS WHO ARE WELL KNOWN FOR RESEARCHING THE VARIABLES INVOLVED IN OPERANT CONDITIONING. E. L. Thorndike and B. F. Skinner are well known for researching the variables involved in operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is the process by which an organism learns a response by operating on the environment. In operant conditioning, the focus is on operants, reinforcers and discriminative stimuli. A reinforcer is a stimulus event that increases the probability that the operant behavior will occur again. Positive reinforcers strengthen a response if they are presented after that response occurs. Negative reinforcers are the removal of unpleasant stimuli such as pain or noise. Discriminative stimuli are stimuli that signal whether reinforcement is available if a certain response is made. Stimulus discrimination occurs when an organism learns to make a particular response in the presence of one stimulus but another. . IDENTIFY AND DESCRIBE THE TYPES OF REINFORCERS AND THE FORMS OF REINFORCEMENT INVOLVED IN OPERANT CONDITIONING; EXPLAIN WHAT TYPES OF BEHAVIOUR ARE LEARNED THROUGH NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT. Primary reinforcers are events or stimuli that satisfy needs basic to survival. Secondary reinforcers are previously neutral stimuli that take on reinforcing properties if paired with stimuli that are already reinforcing. Positive reinforcers strengthen a response if they are presented after that response occurs. Negative reinforcers are the removal of unpleasant stimuli. The effects of negative reinforcement are escape conditioning, which occurs when you learn to make a response to end an aversive stimulus and avoidance conditioning which is the process of learning responses that avoid aversive stimulus. 10. IDENTIFY AND DESCRIBE THE TYPES OF PUNISHERS INVOLVED IN OPERANT CONDITIONING; DISCUSS THE LIMITATIONS OF PUNISHMENT. In one form of punishment a behavior is followed by an aversive or unpleasant stimulus. In a second form of punishment, sometimes called penalty, a pleasant stimulus is removed following a behavior. Punishment has its drawbacks: A) It doesn’t erase an undesirable habit, it merely lowers the probability of its immediate reccurrence. B) It can produce unwanted side effects C) Punishment is often ineffective unless it is given immediately D) It can become aggression, even abuse when given in anger E) It does not specify correct alternative behavior. 11. WHY IS MONEY A SECONDARY REINFORCER? This is because it is used to acquire primary reinforcements such as food and other such things. 12. BRING OUT THE SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING. The similarities are: a) Both involve learning of associations b) Responses are under control of stimuli in the environment c) Both are ways of changing one’s behavior. The differences are: a) In operant the learner is rewarded with incentives while classical conditioning involves no such enticements. b) Classical conditioning involves making an association between an involuntary response and a stimulus while operant conditioning is about making association between a voluntary behavior and consequence. 3. DESCRIBE THE RESULTS OF COGNITIVE LEARNING STUDIES THAT FOCUSED ON INSIGHT AND LATENT LEARNING. Latent learning is learning that is not demonstrated at the time it occurs. A cognitive map is a mental representation of some physical arrangement. Cognitive maps develop naturally through experience. Cognitive psychologists see learning as more than the sum of reinforcement effects and automatic associations. Insight is a sudden understanding a bout what is required to produce a desired effect. It’s the result of actual trial and error experimentation or of an extended â€Å"mental trial and error† process in which people envision of a course of action, mentally simulate its results, compare it with the imagined outcome of other alternatives and then settle on the course of an action most likely to aid complex problem solving and decision making. 14. DESCRIBE OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING, EXPLAIN THE VARIABLE THAT AFFECTS IT AND DISCUSS SOME OF THE DIFFICULTIES INVOLVED IN STUDYING HOW IT OCCURS. Observational learning is the learning that occurs through observing the behavior of other people. Albert Bandura discovered this basic form of learning in 1986. Bandura stressed the importance of observational learning because it allowed children especially, to acquire new responses through observing others’ behavior. This form of learning does not need reinforcement to occur; instead, a model is required. A social model can be a parent, sibling, friend, or teacher, but particularly in childhood a model is someone of authority or higher status. A social model is significantly important in observational learning because it allows one to cognitively process behavior, encode what is observed, and store it in memory for later imitation. While the model may not be intentionally trying to instill any particular behavior, many behaviors that one observes, remembers and imitates are actions that models display. A child may learn inappropriate behavior acceptable through poor modeling. He claims that children continually learn desirable and undesirable behavior through observational learning. Observational learning suggests that an individual’s environment, cognition, and behavior all integrate and ultimately determine how one functions. Diffusion chain is a process by which behaviors are transferred from one person to another by imitation. Stages of observational learning and its effects Attention: Observers cannot learn unless they pay attention to what’s happening around them. This process is influenced by characteristics of the model, such as how much one likes or identifies with the model, and by characteristics of the observer, such as the observer’s expectations or level of emotional arousal. Retention: Observers must not only recognize the observed behavior but also remember it at some later time. This process depends on the observer’s ability to code or structure the information in an easily remembered form or to mentally or physically rehearse the model’s actions. Production: Observers must be physically and/intellectually capable of producing the act. In many cases the observer possesses the necessary responses. But sometimes, reproducing the model’s actions may involve skills the observer has not yet acquired. It is one thing to carefully watch a circus juggler, but it is quite another to go home and repeat those acts. Motivation: In general, observers will perform the act only if they have some motivation or reason to do so. The presence of reinforcement or punishment, either to the model or directly to the observer, becomes most important in this process Culture and environment also play a role in whether observational learning will be the dominant learning style in a person or community. In some cultures, children are expected to actively participate in their communities and are therefore exposed to different trades and roles on a daily basis. This exposure allows children to observe and learn the different skills and practices that are valued in their communities. In communities where children’s primary mode of learning is through observation, the children are rarely separated from adult activities. This incorporation into the adult world at an early age allows children to use observational learning skills in multiple spheres of life. Culturally, they learn that their participation and contributions are valued in their communities. This teaches children that it is their duty as members of the community to observe contributions being made in order to gradually become involved and participate further in the community LIMITATIONS Poor Role Models Demonstrate Poor Behavior While observational learning is effective in teaching positive new behaviors, it may also encourage the adoption of previously forbidden behavior. During the 90s psychologists made a startling statement based on Albert Bandura’s theories that children learned to behave aggressively after witnessing violent acts performed by adults or older children, specifically family members. For example, children who witness a parent’s abusive behavior are at a higher risk of becoming abusive themselves. Undesirable Models May Reinforce Behavior In many cases, television is a source of behavior modeling. Many forms of both adult and child entertainment involve some type of behavior and portray this as socially acceptable and even desirable. This type of exposure has been shown to precipitate aggressive behavior in those who observe it regularly. For example, one study stated that homicide rates increased after media events like televised heavyweight championships. A second study found that children who watched a higher than average amount of television were almost 49 percent more likely to become violent criminal Evidence of Learning is Not Always Visible Albert Bandura pioneered the study of observational learning. During the 20th century, he refined a description of the learning process, which required learners to observe certain behaviors, remember the action, and have the opportunity to model the behavior. However, recent experts argue that learning occurs after observation of certain behaviors and their consequences despite the fact that learners may not physically repeat the same behavior for some time. Observational Learning Requires Motivation Learners are more motivated to repeat behaviors they enjoy and are capable of performing successfully. Observational Learning Theory lacks consideration of other important factors in learning. The Social Learning Theory generally ignores an individual’s physical and psychological limitations. Inherited conditions may affect how learners react to an act, as well as their ability to retain and repeat certain behaviors. 15. Distinguish among, (these 3), memory, learning and insights? Memory refers to the capacity to retain and retrieve information, and also to the structure that account for this capacity. Learning is a change in performance, which occurs as a result of practice (Mc Geoch and Ivion 1952) . earning, is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to past experience (Coon, 1983). An insight is the sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be independent of one another. 16. Discuss information processing model (of memory)? 17. Describe the structure, function, and time course of long-term memory. Distinguish between explicit and implicit memory and between episodic and semantic memory? Its capacity is unlimited. It holds retention of memory for a long period. Its very important in learning. Explicit memory is conscious while episodic is unconscious. Episodic memory contains your own experiences while semantic memory contains facts and general knowledge. 18 . Identify steps and techniques you can use to help yourself remember something; i. e. how can you improve your memory? Steps on how to improve memory i. Rehearse. This is repeating of past information ii. Distribute practicing over time whereby you should review newly represented articles and make a summary. iii. Use mnemonics. This is a formal strategies and tricks for encoding, storing and retaining information like setting a formula. iv. Use of mediation and imagery v. Review in different contexts and modelity. This is the place where you learn something that can be very important. vi. Focus. 19. Define the terms motivation, drive, and need. Describe drive theories of motivation? Motivation. This is a process within a person or animal that causes movement toward a goal or away from an unpleasant situation. Drive. This is that force which energizes behavior intended to fulfill a need. Need. This is a motivating force that compels action for its satisfaction. Drive theories of motivation a) Cognitive theory This theory emphasizes the role of our thought, expectations and understanding of the word. Using the expectancy value theory it is assumed that our behaviors are determined by two kinds of cognitive. The first is our expectations that our behavior will make us reach a particular goal. The second is that we tend to have our understanding of the value of that goal. b) Arousal theory This theory proposes that a goal of individual is to maintain or increase the level of excitement or activity. Individuals try to maintain certain levels of stimulation of cognitive activity: where such levels are too low the individual tries to increase them by seeking stimulation. c) Incentive theory This theory proposes that behavior is not always motivated by internal (physiological) needs. Rather the focus is on the external stimulus influencing the behavior. 20. Characterize the eating disorders of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa? In bulimia, the person binges (eats vast quantities of rich food) and then purges by inducing vomiting or using laxatives. Individuals with bulimia are usually normal in weight, but they are obsessed with their weight and shape. In anorexia nervosa, the person eats hardly anything and therefore becomes dangerously thin because of a delusional belief that she or he is too fat. Bulimia and anorexia are at least ten times more common in women than in men, and these eating disorders are most likely to begin in lat adolescence, as girls bodies are maturing. Although many people with these disorders recover, others damage their health permanently, or, in the case of anorexia, eventually die of self-starvation. 21. Describe the sexual response cycle of human beings and the sexual dysfunctions that occur in men and women? 22. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. What is self-actualization? Intrinsic otivation deriver’s motivation forces from within the individual activity. The individual participates in an activity not because of any material benefit (reward) but due to his or her enjoyment of the activity. It also means internal or inside of yourself. This is enjoying an activity, course or skill development solely for the satisfaction of learning and having fun, and you are determined to strive inwardly in order to be competent. Extrin sic motivation means external or outside of yourself. This material benefit that will result from participating in an activity e. . an individual may do a job because he or she is going to earn money but not because the job is interesting. Self-actualization is a state in which people realize their highest potential. At this point one is happy with what he or she achieved. He may not be rich. 23. Distinguish between the cross-sectional and longitudinal methods of studying development? In longitudinal methods of study, a researcher performs repeated observations or testing at specified points during the participants’ lives, thus allowing the observation of development. The time span involved maybe be anywhere from a few months to a lifetime while a cross-sectional study, are quick by nature in that a researcher does not have to follow the development of each individual. At the same time a researcher does not the rich data on individual development that can be garnered from longitudinal studies since the evidence of change is inferred from differences between the age groups. 24. Define zygote, embryo and fetus and discuss the developmental changes that take place during the prenatal period? Zygote is the fertilized cell that will grow into a baby anima. Embryo is a multicellular diploid eukaryote in its earliest stage of development, from the time of first cell division until birth. Fetus is a developing mammal or other viviparous vertebrate after the embryonic stage and before birth. Prenatal development It is divided into 3 stages, the germinal, the embryonic and the fetal stage. a. The germinal stage Begin at conception, when the male sperm unites with the female ovum (egg). A day or so after conception, the fertilized egg, or zygote begins to divide into two parts, and in 10-14 days it attaches itself to the wall of uterus. The outer portion becomes of the zygote will form the part of the placenta and umbilical cord, and the inner portion becomes the embryo. The placenta, connected to the embryo by the umbilical cord, serves as growing embryo link for food from the mother; it allows nutrients to enter and wastes to exit, and it screens out some, but not all, harmful substances. b. The embryonic stage Begins and lasts until the 8th week after conception. The embryo develops webbed fingers and foes, a tail, eyes, ears, nose, a mouth, circulatory system and a spinal cord. During the 4th-8th week, the male hormone testosterone is secreted by the rudimentary testes in embryos that are genetically male; without this hormone, the embryo will develop to be anatomically female. c. Fetal stage Begins after 8 weeks. The organism, now called a fetus further develops the organs and systems that existed in rudimentary form in the embryonic stage By 28 weeks, the nervous and respiratory systems are developed enough to allow most fetuses to live if born prematurely. The greatest gains in brain and nervous system development occur during the last 12 weeks of a full term pregnancy. 5. Define accommodation and assimilation. Identify and describe Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development (intellectual development). Give a criticism of the theory? Assimilation is what you do when you fit new information into your present system of knowledge and beliefs or into your mental schemas (networks of associations, beliefs and expectations about categories of things and people). Accommodation is what you do when, as a result of undeniable new information; you must change or modify your existing schemas. Piaget’s four stages i. The sensor motor stage (birth to age 2) In this stage, the infant learns through concrete actions, looking, touching, hearing, putting things in mouth, sucking, grasping. â€Å"Thinking† consists of coordinating sensory information with bodily movements. Gradually, these movements become more purposeful ass the child explores the environment and learns that specific movements will produce specific results. A major accomplishment at this stage said Piaget, is object permanence, the understanding that something continues to exist even when you cannot see it or touch it. ii. The preoperational stage(age 2-7) During this stage, the use of symbols and language accelerates. A 2-year-old is able to pretend for instance that a large box is a house, table or train. But Piaget described this stage largely in terms of what (he thought) the child cannot do. Although children can think, said Piaget, they can reason, and they lack the mental abilities necessary for understanding abstracts principles or cause and effect. Piaget called these missing abilities operations, by which he meant reversible actions that the child performs in the mind. iii. The concrete operations stage(ages 7-12) In this stage, Piaget said, children’s thinking is still grounded in concrete experiences and concepts rather than in abstractions or logical deductions. However, the nature and quality of their thought processes change significantly where by children come to understanding the principles of conservation, reversibility and cause and effect. iv. The formal operations stage(age 12 through adulthood) In this stage teenagers become capable of abstract reasoning. They understand that ideas can be compared and classified just as objects can. They are able to reason about situations they have not experienced firsthand and they can think about futurePossibilities. 26. Distinguish between reliability and validity? Reliability is a synonymous with the consistency of a test, survey, observation or other measuring device while validity refers to the degree in which our test or other measuring device is truly measuring what we intended it to. 27. Identify three basic criticisms of- and defenses for- the validity of tests and testing? * Replicating and generalizing the findings * Demand characteristics Confounding of variables 28. (a)Distinguish among self-esteem, self-concept and self-efficacy? Self- concept is simply the informational side of things, where you know facts about what you are like while self- esteem is how you feel about those things you know, like whether you enjoy the fact that you are talkative at parties (high self- esteem) or you think that you are annoying and need to shut up sometimes (low self- esteem). Self- efficacy is a person’s belief that he or she is capable of producing desired results, such as mastering new skills and reaching goals. b)How does self- efficacy affect motivation? Self efficacy affects motivation positively in that it motivates a person to achieve a certain goal. 29(a) Define research and state the purpose of research? Research is a systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem encountered in the working setting. Purpose * To acquire knowledge * To solve problems (b)What are the four objectives of science? a. Description. Requires verifying the phenomenon accurately. b. Explanation. This gives details why the phenomenon is the way it is. . Prediction. This is correlation research, naturalistic observation or case study. d. Control. This is experimental research. (c)Outline steps of scientific research method? a. Identify the problem. b. Definition of the problem in clear and specific terms. c. Development of hypothesis or research questions. d. Development of techniques and measuring instruments related to the problem that will provide objective. e. Collect relevant data. f. Analyze and interpret the results. g. Present the results in appropriate form. h. Replicate the study. d) State characteristics of scientific research method? * Psychology uses scientific methods to collect data. * Psychology attempts to find the new truth. * Psychology deals with observable behavior and establishes facts by objective evidence. * Psychological research attempts to know more about the variables that a ffects behavior. * Psychological research uses scientific methods to study human behavior and examine traditional views. * Psychology as a science helps to understand, control and predict behavior. It uses the experimental methods by controlling variables and rechecking indings and stating it results in objective terms; these can be verified by anyone in given conditions. * Psychological research findings are applicable to future research and to practical life. 30. Discuss the five major approaches used to carry out scientific research bringing out their strengths and weakness? CASE STUDY;this occurs when researchers studies a subject in depth . He collects data about the subject through interviews, direct observation psychological testing, or examination of documents and records about the subjects. Strengths ;providing a good way to generate hypothesis gt;yields data that other methods can’t provide Weaknesses;sometimes gives incomplete information ;it even relies on self-re port data, which can be misleading ;it is subjective thus may yield biased results ;does not allow conclusions about cause and effect relationship. SURVEY;this is a way of getting information about a specific type of behavior experience or event . when using this method, researchers give people questionnaires or interview them to obtain information Strengths;yields a lot of information gt;provides a good way to generate hypothesis ;it can provide information about many people since it is cheap and easy to do. Weaknesses;provides information about behavior that cannot be observed directly ;Relies on self-report data which can be misleading ;does not allow conclusions about cause and effect relationships NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION;this is a method where researchers collect information about subjects by observing them unobtrusively without interfering with them in any way Strengths;it can be useful for generating hypothesis gt;provides information about behavior in the natural environmen t. Weaknesses;sometimes produces biased results ;may be difficult to do unobtrusively ;Does not allow conclusions about cause and effect relationship. EXPERIMENTS;This is where a researcher manipulates a particular variable under controlled conditions while observing resulting changes in another variable that is he manipulates the independent variable and observes the dependent variable since its thought to depend to the independent variable Strengths ;identifies cause and effect relationship. gt;distinguishes between placebo effect and the real effects of a treatment or drug. Weaknesses;can be artificial so results may not generalize to world situations ;they cannot be used to study everything sometimes researchers cannot control variables enough to use to be used in an experiment because they find that painful or harmful in someway PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS;Researchers use psychological tests to collect information about personality traits, emotional states, aptitudes interests, abiliti es, values or behaviors. Researchers usually standardize these tests which means they create uniform procedures for giving and scoring them Strength;gives information about characteristics e. g. personal traits, emotional states, aptitudes, interests, abilities, values, and behaviors. Weaknesses;does not allow conclusions about cause and effect relationships ;requires good reliability and validity before it can be used 31(a) Discuss both Piaget’s theory of cognitive (intellectual) development and Freud’s theory of personality development bringing out similarities and differences of the two theories. Piaget’s theory is a comprehensive theory about the nature and development of human intelligence. It is primarily known as a development stage theory, but in fact, it deals with nature of knowledge itself and how humans come gradually to acquire, construct and use it. To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience. Children construct understanding of the world around them, and then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in the environment. Moreover, Piaget claims the idea that cognitive development is a centre of human organism and language is contingent on cognitive development Freud’s theory of personality deals with the id, ego and super-ego which are three parts of the psychic apparatus defined in the structural model of the psyche; they are three theoretical constructs in terms of whose activity and interaction mental life described. According to this model of the psyche, the id is the set of uncoordinated instinctual trends; the ego is the organized, realistic part; and the super-ego plays the critical and moralizing role. The super-ego can stop you from doing certain things that your id may want you to do. Even though the model is structural and makes reference to an apparatus, the id, ego and super-ego are functions of the mind rather than parts of the brain and do not correspond one-to-one with actual somatic structures of the kind dealt with by neuroscience. The similarities in the theories are that both have clearly defined stages, people are expected to progress from stage to stage. Both aim to explain thinking or behavior in development including changes. Both assume a deterministic and universal progression. b)Discuss briefly their applicability and disparity of the both theories in our set up today? 32. Who is an ‘adolescence’? Discuss the changes and problems experienced by adolescences? Adolescence is person aged between the teen years and undergoing rapid changes both physical and psychological. Adolescences undergo many changes In boys: broadening of chests Deepening of their voice Growth of hair in the pubic parts Enlargement of the penis In girls: softening of their voices Widening of the hips Enlarging of the breasts Growth of hair in their private parts They also experience numerous problems including Injuring themselves as they experiment everything they see e. g. fighting techniques Growth of pimples on their faces Arousal by any sex related stimuli as sexual motivation is at its peak Some become mad due to the use of drugs. Girls become pregnant as they try to maximize sexual satisfaction 33. (a)Describe consciousness and altered states of consciousness giving examples in each case? (i) Consciousness;this is the awareness of the various mental processes taking place in our bodies. For example, awakening, and learning. i). Altered state of consciousness;this is the state characterized by a series of processes which are not normal. For example day dreaming, hypnosis, meditation, biofeedback, intoxication. (b)State three symptoms of schizophrenia Hallucinations Hallucinations are sounds or other sensations experienced as real when they exist only in the person’s mind. While hallucinations can involve any of the five senses, a uditory hallucinations (e. g. hearing voices or some other sound) are most common in schizophrenia. Visual hallucinations are also relatively common. Research suggests that auditory hallucinations occur when people misinterpret their own inner self-talk as coming from an outside source. Schizophrenic hallucinations are usually meaningful to the person experiencing them. Many times, the voices are those of someone they know. Most commonly, the voices are critical, vulgar, or abusive. Hallucinations also tend to be worse when the person is alone. Disorganized speech Fragmented thinking is characteristic of schizophrenia. Externally, it can be observed in the way a person speaks. People with schizophrenia tend to have trouble concentrating and maintaining a train of thought. They may respond to queries with an unrelated answer, start sentences with one topic and end somewhere completely different, speak incoherently, or say illogical things. Common signs of disorganized speech in schizophrenia include: Loose associations – Rapidly shifting from topic to topic,with no connection between one thought and the next. Neologisms – Made-up words or phrases that only have meaning to the patient. Perseveration – Repetition of words and statements; saying the same thing over and over. Clang – Meaningless use of rhyming words (â€Å"I said the bread and read the shed and fed Ned at the head†). Disorganized behavior Schizophrenia disrupts goal-directed activity, causing impairments in a person’s ability to take care of him or herself, work, and interact with others. Disorganized behavior appears as: A decline in overall daily functioning Unpredictable or inappropriate emotional responses Behaviors that appear bizarre and have no purpose Lack of inhibition and impulse control Negative symptoms (absence of normal behaviors) The so-called â€Å"negative† symptoms of schizophrenia refer to the absence of normal behaviors found in healthy individuals. Common negative symptoms of schizophrenia include: Lack of emotional expression –Inexpressive face, including a flat voice, lack of eye contact, and blank or restricted facial expressions. Lack of interest or enthusiasm – Problems with motivation; lack of self-care. Seeming lack of interest in the world – Apparent unawareness of the environment; social withdrawal. Speech difficulties and abnormalities – Inability to carry a conversation; short and sometimes disconnected replies to questions; speaking in monotone. 34. (a)What is a theory? This is an organized system of assumptions and principles that purports to explain a specified set of phenomena and their interrelationships. (b)What does it mean to adopt eclectic approach? this is the selection of the best method of study, teaching, or even researching that best fits the person involved. (c)Explain Abraham Mallow’s theory of motivation and personality (hierarchy of human needs). He says that different motivation needs are ordered in a hierarchy with more basic lower level needs at the bottom and sophisticated higher level needs at the top. He says that a lower level need must be satisfied before the one above is satisfied. a. Physiological needs. Needs for food, water, sleep, sex. In order to move to the next level of needs these primary needs must be satisfied first. b. Safety (security) needs. People need a safe secure environment to enable them function effectively. c. Love and belonging needs. These include the need to obtain and give affection. It also includes being a significant member of a group or society. d. Esteem needs. These refer to the need to develop a sense of self worth. One becomes aware that others are aware of and are likely to make judgment about ones competence and value. . Cognitive needs. These are needs that are related to the individual’s exploratory activities, which are the need to know and understand the environment in which one lives. f. Aesthetic needs. The need for beauty and order in our society that is to what extent are we concerned about making our society orderly and beautiful. g. Self- actualization needs. Once all the above needs are fulfilled the person strives for the highest level need- self actualization. (d)What approach is his (Maslow) theory? He says that it is difficult to achieve the highest level of needs. Only about one percent of the population would reach the level of self actualization whereby the ability to achieve the highest level- self actualization is undermined by social, political cultural and economics instabilities in our society. REFERENCES 1. Myers D. G (2008) Psychology 9th edition New York: Worth publishers 2. Wayne Weiten (2000) Psychology Themes and Variations 7th Edition 3. www. simplypsychology. com 4. Woolfolk A (2004) 9th edition Educational psychology Boston pearson education inc 5. Rita L. Atikinson (1987) Introduction to psychology 9th edition How to cite Introduction to Psychology, Essay examples Introduction to Psychology Free Essays Introduction to Psychology Introduction to the Unit Unit overview This unit focuses on understanding psychological theory and its application to life. It provides you with an understanding of: †¢ psychology as a social science †¢ the biological basis of behaviour †¢ psychological development through the lifespan †¢ sensation and perception †¢ states of consciousness †¢ memory, learning and conditioning theories †¢ cognition, language, creativity and intelligence †¢ motivation and emotion †¢ personality †¢ psychological disorders and their treatment †¢ health, stress and coping Unit objectives By the conclusion of this unit, you should be able to: †¢ demonstrate and describe the role of psychology in various areas of life †¢ demonstrate an understanding of psychology as a social science †¢ use basic terminology and concepts of psychological theory †¢ apply psychological theories to your own life Textbook The textbook for this unit is by Weiten, W. , Dunn, D. We will write a custom essay sample on Introduction to Psychology or any similar topic only for you Order Now S. , Hammer, E. Y. (2012). Psychology applied to modern life: Adjustment in the 21st century (10th ed. ). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. This manual directs you to the relevant chapters of your textbook associated with each section. Unit Overview Introduction to Psychology Studying for this unit The content of this unit has been designed to maximise the learning and the integration of the subject matter. Some of the unit material may be specific to the Australian context. Students are encouraged to access additional information relevant to their local area that will assist in applying the learning. This may include specific legislation, professional associations and locally published journals. It is important that your learning is broadbased. Accessing local resources that build on what is contained in this unit will greatly assist your learning. In studying this unit, you will need a notebook for completing the activities and selfassessment for each section. Within your notebook, you may like to set aside space for: †¢ completing a glossary of new terminology introduced in this unit †¢ personal notes on unit content and readings In general, students are expected to: †¢ read each section of the unit carefully and make notes on anything which is new, vague, tentative or in conflict with your knowledge or experience †¢ complete each activity fully and honestly before moving on †¢ complete readings of the textbook, making notes of important insights or facts Read also Memory – Forgetting There may be periodic suggestions or issues on which you are asked to deliberate and reflect. Sometimes these are dilemmas or difficult issues associated with the study topic. These have no obvious right or wrong answers. Activities Appropriate activities are set throughout the unit to give opportunities for further learning. They are designed to help you think through and practise the specific skills and general concepts presented in this unit. They do not need to be sent to the unit educator for marking. However, valuable learning opportunities may be missed by not completing the activities. Readings The manual directs you to readings that are found in the ‘Readings Pack’. These readings are selected from journals and books that provide additional information or a different perspective on topics covered in each section. They are from a range of authorities and expand the content of this unit. Unit Overview 2 Introduction to Psychology Self-assessment There are self-assessment questions at the end of each section to test your understanding of the section’s content. Try to recall the answers to these questions unaided. Write down what you remember, before going back to review the relevant material in the section. Some of the questions will require more than simple recall. Some will require bringing together separate issues or different pieces of information. Real learning is not just remembering what was read. It involves making this knowledge your own by: †¢ reflecting on it †¢ questioning it †¢ relating it to personal experiences †¢ restating it in your own words Assignments The assignments for this unit are carefully set so they develop from and support the key concepts and skills of the unit. Reference list The reference list for this unit is located at the end pages of the manual. Unit Overview 3 Introduction to Psychology Contents Section 1: Introduction to Psychology and the Biological Bases of Behaviour Section 2: The Science of Psychology: Tools and Research Methods Section 3: Psychological Development through the Lifespan Section 4: Personality: Theory, Research and Assessment Section 5: Sensation and Perception Section 6: Health, Stress and Coping Section 7: States of Consciousness Section 8: Memory, Learning and Conditioning Section 9: Motivation and Emotion Section 10: Cognition, Language, Creativity and Intelligence Section 11: Psychological Disorders and Social Issues Section 12: Treatment of Psychological Disorders Unit Overview 4 Introduction to Psychology Assignment requirements Ensure you keep a copy of all material submitted. This includes audio–visual recordings. Assignment Type % Word Count Week Due Academic Essay 50 2000 8 Academic Essay 50 2000 11 Unit Overview 5 Introduction to Psychology Assignment 1 Assignment Type Weighting Word Count Week Due Academic Essay 50 2000 8 Choose one of the following topics and write an essay discussing the topic in light of theory you have learned about in this unit: 1. Stress is an epidemic in the 21st century and impacts on people’s behaviour in many ways. Discuss in light of the literature. 2. Compare and contrast two theories of personality. Ensure you include a definition of personality in your essay. 3. Research suggests that first impressions are created within the first few minutes of meeting someone. Discuss the factors that impact on our perception of others and some of the elements that affect the accuracy of first impressions. Your essay should include: †¢ A clear articulation of your chosen topic †¢ A discussion of the topic as outlined in the essay descriptions above †¢ An analysis of the topic in light of current literature Unit Overview 6 Introduction to Psychology Outstanding Very good Good Satisfactory Not Satisfactory Marking Criteria – Academic Essay Content 1. Topic clearly articulated 2. Topic discussed as per essay description provided 3. Topic analysed in light of current literature 4. Evidence of familiarity with relevant literature and theory Structure 5. Appropriate introduction provided that clearly articulates the topic 6. Main ideas clearly and logically presented 7. Appropriate conclusion provided that summarises the key findings/ideas 8. Relevant literature used properly Subtotal: Yes / 85 No Partial Written Expression 9. Third person writing style used 10. Fluent writing style used with correct spelling, grammar and punctuation Presentation 11. Presentation guidelines followed as specified in the Academic Skills Guide 12. Word count within 10% of requirement Referencing 13. In-text referencing guidelines followed as specified in the Academic Skills Guide, and if not covered in the ASG then by the APA convention (6th edition) 14. List of references provided as outlined in the Academic Skills Guide, and if not covered by the ASG then by the APA convention (6th edition) Subtotal: / 15 Total Mark: /100 Weighted Scale: / 50 Grade: Unit Overview 7 Introduction to Psychology Comments: Unit Overview 8 Introduction to Psychology Assignment 2 Assignment Type Weighting Word Count Week Due Academic Essay 50 2000 11 Choose one of the areas listed below. Identify and critically evaluate the role of internal and external factors in relation to this area. 1. Sensation/Perception – e. g. physical vs. psychological 2. Motivation – e. g. intrinsic vs. extrinsic 3. Intelligence – e. g. nature vs. nurture 4. Learning – e. g. the role of external vs. internal rewards Your essay should include: †¢ A clear articulation of your chosen topic †¢ A discussion of the topic as outlined in the essay descriptions above †¢ An analysis of the topic in light of current literature Unit Overview 9 Introduction to Psychology Outstanding Very good Good Satisfactory Not Satisfactory Marking Criteria – Academic Essay Content 1. Topic clearly articulated 2. Topic discussed as per essay description provided 3. Topic analysed in light of current literature 4. Evidence of familiarity with relevant literature and theory Structure 5. Appropriate introduction provided that clearly articulates the topic 6. Main ideas clearly and logically presented 7. Appropriate conclusion provided that summarises the key findings/ideas 8. Relevant literature used properly Subtotal: Yes / 85 No Partial Written Expression 9. Third person writing style used 10. Fluent writing style used with correct spelling, grammar and punctuation Presentation 11. Presentation guidelines followed as specified in the Academic Skills Guide 12. Word count within 10% of requirement Referencing 13. In-text referencing guidelines followed as specified in the Academic Skills Guide, and if not covered in the ASG then by the APA convention (6th edition) 14. List of references provided as outlined in the Academic Skills Guide, and if not covered by the ASG then by the APA convention (6th edition) Subtotal: / 15 Total Mark: /100 Weighted Scale: / 50 Grade: Unit Overview 10 Introduction to Psychology Comments: Unit Overview 1 Introduction to Psychology Assignment support and information Important and valuable information about completing your assignments can be found in the following places: †¢ Academic skills guide – found in the ‘Student Resources’ section of my. acap †¢ Study skills guide – found in the ‘Student Resources ’ section of my. acap †¢ the ‘Learning Support’ section of the ‘Current Students’ part of the ACAP website All assignments are to be submitted online through my. acap. You can find more information on the assignment process on the ‘Assessment Information’ section of the ‘Current Students’ part of the ACAP website. Unit Overview 12 How to cite Introduction to Psychology, Papers Introduction to Psychology Free Essays

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Question: Describe about Analysing the Organisational Environment: Corporate Strategy? Answer: Introduction This report is aimed at performing an analysis of a company that has achieved superior level of success in its performance in the past few years. In order to analyse the company, the specific company that has been selected is Apple Inc which has been a US based Multinational Corporation in the electronics industry. Apple Inc is operating at the international level and the company primarily deals in large range of electronic products such as computers, iPads, iPods, iPhones and many more. In order to analyse the performance of Apple Inc, this report is focused towards performing a critical assessment of the strategies that have been adopted by the company in achieving higher growth. An analysis of the financial performance of Apple would also be performed including the competitive positioning strategy as applied by the company. In analysing the companys performance, there will be the application of strategic models that would be carried out relevant to assessing its superior performan ce (Roland and Shiman, 2002) and finally, the strategy in sustaining its superior performance will be assessed. Based on the entire analysis, the findings will be summarised in the conclusion section of this report. Analysis of Apple and Selected International Division As analysed above, Apple Inc is a US based corporation that deals in electronic products that are highly innovative in nature. The company sells its products all across the world, and the most popular ones as includes within its product portfolio are laptops, iPhones, iPods, Ipad etc. However, for the purpose of analysis in this report, the specific segment that has been selected is iPhones which is mainly a type of smart phone offered by the company. The performance of Apple in relation to iPhone over the past few years would be assessed as a part of strategic analysis. An analysis of iPhone in particular indicates that it is a smart phone offered by Apple Inc, and it was first launched in June 29, 2007. After the launch of initial iPhone in 2007, the company has performed the launch of a series of iPhones and the most recent launch of its iPhone is iPhone 6. The company has achieved significant level of success with its iPhone 6 as this smart phone has enabled Apple in outperformin g its competitors in a positive way. Theoretical Description and Analysis of Strategic Management Principles There are various such theories and principles of strategic management that could be applied in assessing different important areas of an organisations performance. As for instance, in analysing the competitive positioning, an important strategic management tool is Porter Generic Strategy. As per this strategic tool, there can be the selection of a specific strategic position by the company from three different alternatives such as cost, differentiation or focus. However, a company can select only one strategic choice which could allow it in achieving higher level of growth and success in its performance. It could be either cost oriented, or focus oriented or differentiation. By focusing on a specific strategy, it could be possible to achieve higher success levels (Eldring, 2009). Apart from analysing competitive position, the assessment of the financial performance of a company can be possible through applying trend analysis which explains the upward or downward trend in respect to the companys performance. The value creation ability of a company can be assessed through the application of strategic analytical tool such as strategic resources management. The strategic resources management indicates the resources that are available to an organisation which allows them in achieving higher level of effectiveness (Ferrell and Hartline, 2010). Attainment of Superior Performance by Apple In respect to iPhones, Apple has been successful in achieving superior performance as compared to its competitors. The strategic analysis of Apple iPhones indicate that the company has been successful in introducing a series of iPhones and the most important thing is that Apple has been successful in bringing new innovation in each and every devices that it introduced in the market. Apple iPhone 6 in particular is an upgrade version of iPhone and it includes the application of most innovative and latest processor and operating system iOS 8. The company aims to offer something new within its iPhones so that it is attractive to users, and the iPhone 6 is also comprised of large number of such features that makes people to buy. The superior performance of the company in respect to its latest iPhone is evident from the fact that there are more than 73 million iPhones that are sold in last quarter which has been a significant achievement to the company (Smith, 2015). The definition of str ategic success is higher recognition of the firms product in the market and huge growth and development opportunity to such firms selling such product. An analysis of the superiority in the performance of Apple through various important measures is performed as follows: Competitive Positioning: The superiority in the performance of Apple iPhone 6 is evident from the competitive positioning of its phones as made by the company. Apple is already known as the most innovative company that provides high quality and innovative products to its customers. iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 plus as offered by the company are competitively positioned as the most significant phone in the smart phone segment whereby Apple offers its latest operating system iOS 8, and it also claims that the battery performance with its new iPhone is also highly efficient. The operating system as used by Apple has been highly competitive with Android operating system, and it was positioned as the superior phone in the market (Burrows, 2014). The positioning of iPhone 6 is done by the company as the most innovative iPhone and this has brought significant success to the company in terms of 73 millions units of iPhone sold in a quarter. The innovative focus of the company to offer something new has proved to be excellent to it in achieving success. There are various important areas that are paid attention by the company in its new iPhone 6 including the screen size, battery life, latest operating system, inclusion of new features such as Near Field Communication (NFC) and many more. The complete package of competitiveness is offered by the company in its single device and this has been the reason that 73 million units are already sold by the company in a quarter (Leather, 2014). The competitive positioning of Apple can be described by way of Porter generic competitive advantage model. An analysis of Apple indicates that the strategic choice of the company can be best described as differentiation strategy whereby Apple aims at achieving competence through its differentiating features such as its unique operating system, its premium quality products and many more. The company has utilised a differentiating strategy in order to target its customers and this has proved to be highly successful as evident from the increasing level of demands as faced by it (Kelly and Booth, 2004). Financial Performance: iPhone was initially launched by the company in 2007 and this is followed by the launch of series of iPhones. These innovative products as offered by the company have increased its sales and ultimately the profitability performance to a greater level. In order to analyse its financial performance, the revenue generation of the company including its profitability performance for the last five years is indicated in the table below: 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Revenue 65225 108249 156508 170910 182795 Net Profit 14013 25922 41733 37037 39510 An analysis of the financial performance of Apple Inc over the five years in the above table shows that there has been a rising trend being witnessed with respect to the revenue earned by the company over the years, and also the profitability performance that has been achieved by the company. The growth in the revenue and the profitability of the company is an indicator of the fact that the company is doing well over the years. However, the entire growth and development cannot be attributed to the iPhones as launched by the company over the years because there are various other products that contribute positively towards higher growth and development. But the overall profitability performance as revealed by the table above shows that Apple Inc has been significant in terms of gaining good market share in the industry, and this is positively because of the innovative offerings as made by the company. The trend analysis also showed positive level of performance in respect to Apple Inc. Value Creation: Being a most innovative company, it is likely that the products as offered by Apple Inc are aimed at creating value for its customers. In respect to Apple iPhone 6, it is known as the value creating device by the company because the features in-built within it are aimed at providing some thing new to its customers (Kossowski, 2003). The value as received by customers is mainly in the sense that they get good impression from their friends and colleagues because Apple brand is associated with a premium class brand. The prices of iPhone 6 are set at relatively higher as compared to other smart phones offering similar nature of products. Apart from this, the value creation ability of iPhone 6 is also evident in the US markets whereby the huge demand for the companys product has resulted into its selling in the gray market. The brand is being associated with high personality and this is the reason for which people pay premium prices for its products (Dransfield, 2001). The value creation process of Apple Inc can be better evaluated through the application of strategic resources analytical tool. The strategic resources lists down the important resources that are available to the company, and in respect to Apple Inc, it has been analysed that there are wide range of resources available with the company. These include the brand name of highly innovative company, highly talented and innovative IT staff that accounts for performing innovation, huge RD department that accounts for performing innovative practices and resources in the form of technical experts that can revolutionise the performance of the entire company. These are the major resources that allow Apple in creating value for its customers, and because of these resources, Apple has been successful in introducing newer and innovative products to its customers and iPhone 6 is the result of such innovation by the company (Haberberg and Rieple, 2008). Conclusion and Recommendations A critical analysis of Apple Inc that has been successful in achieving superior performance in the last few years is performed and the performance of analysis revealed that the company has specific competencies that allow it in achieving improved level of performance. The ability of the company to innovate and provide something new to its customers along with its highly reputed brand name has all contributed in a positive way towards improved level of performance of its iPhone 6. It has been evaluated that the company has adopted differentiation strategy in its operation, and the financial performance of Apple also looked highly efficient as revealed by trend analysis. The evaluation of Apples performance also indicated that the company has been successful in creating values for its customers by offering high quality products and services to its customers. Recommendations: Although Apple has been successful in achieving highly improved level of performance, yet in order to sustain its performance, there are certain important recommendations considered essential in sustaining its performance. These are indicated below: The company should continue to innovate its processes and should try to offer newer products to its customers. For example, an improved version of iPhone with unique feature and capabilities (Angwin, Cummings and Smith, 2006). The customers of Apple iPhone are mostly attracted because of the ability of the company in offering something new and unique. As a result, the extensive level of RD should be carried out to offer something new to its customers (Allen, 2013). The human resources are crucial to performing innovation and it is therefore essential that the company should aim at retaining its highly talented employees which would contribute in a positive manner towards innovation and thereby allows organisation in sustaining its core competitiveness (Dransfield, 2001). References Allen, M. 2013. Analysing the Organisational Environment. Select Knowledge Limited. Angwin, D., Cummings, S. and Smith, C. 2006. The strategy pathfinder: core concepts and micro-cases. Wiley-Blackwell. Burrows, P. 2014. 6 Reasons Samsung Should Fear the iPhone 6 [Online]. Available at: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-09-02/6-reasons-samsung-should-fear-the-iphone-6.html [Accessed: 25 March 2015]. Dransfield, R. 2001. 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